An Overview of Visual Culture

Introduction

Over the course of the last century social scientists have spent a considerable amount of time and energy attempting to understand the basic context of culture. Through this process a number of notable theories have been developed toward the end of better concept social discourse. Among the most famous theories to be developed in the last several decades has been the theory of visual culture. Although research currently shows that there is considerable debate about how to effectively define and interpret visual culture, there is also a widespread consensus that understanding visual culture is an important and integral part of understanding modern culture.

With the realization that visual culture plays such an important part of understanding society and culture, there is a clear impetus to examine what is meant by visual culture and how it can be applied in the context of analyzing social discourse. To this end, this investigation considers the development of visual culture as one of the theories presented in visual communication studies. Specifically, this investigation provides a broad overview of what visual culture is, how it is examined by social scientists, and how it contributes to the overall watch of visual communication. Through a careful consideration of what is written on this topic, it will be possible to garner a more integral understanding of importance of visual culture in the context of understanding society and culture.

Visual Culture-An Overview

In order to commence this investigation a general overview of what visual culture is and how is utilized for better understanding modern culture must first be explicated. Critically reviewing what has been written about visual culture overall, it becomes clear that researchers examining visual culture have noted that there are a number of differing opinions on the subject. Rusted (1997) in his analysis of visual culture notes that, “There is no interdisciplinary consensus regarding what constitutes visual culture” (p. 1). Assessing what others have been written about the definition of visual culture Rusted goes on to note that the following expectations have been offered:

Visual culture is “all those items of culture whose visual appearance is an valuable feature of there being or their purpose.”

Visual culture encompasses “the production and consumption processes of the elite popular and personal forms of media.”

“Approaching visual images as culture expands the canon of visual art works traditionally associated with aesthetic approaches, and opens the possibility to examine the work performed by the image in the life of the culture” (p. 1).

Clearly what the information provided suggests is that social scientists examining the basic context of visual culture have chosen to focus on various aspects of this process in order to understand and better define it.

Although Rusted provides a immense overview of the many definitions that have been offered toward opinion visual culture, he does not provide a succinct definition of his own which attempts synthesize all of the information that he presents. As such, the reader is left to make his or her own judgments about what is typically accepted as the basis of visual culture. Fortunately not all authors looking at visual culture leave the reader in such a suspended state. Sturken and Cartwright (2001) for instance provide a more precise overview of visual culture in the context of social discourse. In particular, these authors make the observation that, “A single image can serve a multitude of purposes, appear in a range of settings, can mean different things to different people. The roles played by images are multiple, diverse, and complex” (p. 10-11). Sturken and Cartwright go on to argue that the way in which images are interpreted by society constitutes the importance of visual culture in the context of social discourse.

Robinson (2003) supports the assertions made by Sturken and Cartwright and further argues that visual culture is a process that is dependent upon the social context in which it is developed. Specifically this author argues that, “In its largest sense, visual culture is that which provides the conventions for the execution, transmission and reception of the cultural helpful or artifact, whether that be a photo, Film, sculpture, woven baskets, or web page. These products are the result of the system of social relations and networks that generate both the good itself and the value assigned to it” (p. 3). With this effectively suggests about visual culture is that the context in which visual culture is created has two specific relations to culture. First, the specific visual product that is produced is a manifestation of the current culture. Second, the response that is garnered from a specific product is also the manifestation of current culture. Thus, the process of visual culture appears to remove on a cyclical nature in which social reactions produce new products which in turn acquire new social reactions.

Visual Communication-An Overview

While understanding the basic definition of visual culture is an in portion of developing this investigation, it is evident that basic context of visual communication must also be elucidated such that the two areas of visual culture and visual communication can be effectively synthesized. Eby in his examination of visual communication reports that this arrangement of communication is one that is markedly different from traditional oral communication between two individuals. Eby contends that visual communication is a process that warrants stammer interaction among individual, the medium and the message being sent:

A medium of communication is not merely a passive conduit for the transmission of information, but rather an active Force in creating new social patterns and new perceptual realities. A person who is literate has a different worldview than one who receives information exclusively through oral communication. The alphabet, independent of the spoken languages it transcribes or the information it makes available, has its own intrinsic impacts (p. 25).

From the information provided by Eby, one may be inclined to believe that visual communication is analogous to visual culture. However, other researchers examining the context of visual communication have noted that the process of visual communication is one that is predicated more on the express of communication than the visual interaction of the subject with the product. Dragga and Voss (2001) argue that visual communication typically encompasses the visual display of quantitative information. When placed in this context it becomes evident that visual communication is a means for achieving an end. By utilizing visual communication, the individual is able to provide a more intimate understanding of the specific subject being investigated. In this context, the process of visual communication is one that is utilized as a means to communicate specific data toward enhancing the individual’s understanding of a particular subject.

Helmers and Hill (2004) support this assertion noting that the process of visual communication is often thought to contain elements of truth that give it value. What this effectively suggests is that the process of visual communication is one that is undertaken purely for the goal of communicating statistical data to the individual. In this context, the process of visual communication is to facilitate understanding of complex subjects by enhancing the learning experience through visual materials. Thus, in the process of visual communication the goal is not to elicit a specific response or link the materials to the larger context of society. Instead, the goal is to improve the individual’s understanding of a subject. Arguably, when framed in this manner, it becomes clear that the process of visual communication is one that is quite straightforward overall. The meaning of visual communication does not lie in the meaning that can be extracted to understand culture; rather visual communication simply seeks to act as a means for the transfer of data from one source to another.

Even though researchers appear to agree that visual communication is a means for transferring information, there are those that argue that in order for visual communication to have relevance for understanding society and culture, meaning must be extrapolated from the forms of visual communication such that the overall intent of this type of communication can be better understood. Messaris (1994) in his examination of visual communication makes the following observations, “As I see it, what makes images unique as a mode of communication is precisely the fact that they are not merely another form of arbitrary signification. Learning to understand images does not require the lengthy period of initiation characteristic of language learning, and permeability of cultural boundaries is grand greater for images than it is for language” (p. 40). It seems that it is here where the boundary between visual communication and visual culture begin to blur together in more of a visual communications spectrum.

Visual Culture as a Paradigm of Visual Communication

With a basic definition of visual culture clearly elucidated and the basic context of visual communication provided, it is now possible to consider how visual culture serves as a paradigm for visual communication. Reviewing what has been written about the synthesis of visual communication and visual culture, it becomes clear that visual culture evolved from visual communication as a means to better explicate how visual communications effectively provide meaning through their construction. Silvers (2000) in her analysis of this subject argues the following:

For a culture to the visual however requires more than just a visual dimension. In a visual culture people learn mainly, or at least significantly, from what they see but, of course, not from everything they see many eras and places have had visual cultures, where communication and even the community itself rely mainly on what people fashioned for each other to perceive, rather than to hear were sent in some other way. Of course, the visual artifacts that lisp meaning and values that make culture visual are not the same in every visual culture (p. 19).

From this explication it becomes evident that it is here where the two issues of visual culture and visual communication appear to overlap. Whereas visual communication attempts to provide a more integral understanding of how communication can be achieved through visual products, visual culture is what has been produced as a direct result of this attempt to acquire meaning from visual implements. Thus, although visual communication once stood as its own paradigm for understanding how communication took place in social discourse, visual culture has evolved as a successor of visual communication, a means to better understand the visual world that encompasses the very fabric of modern culture.

Further examining visual culture in the context of visual communication, Rice (2004) observes that the process of visual communication is one that evolved as a means for anthropologists to better understand the specific symbols that were being worn to transfer information. According to Rice, visual culture evolved because society intrinsically understood the bias that existed in both written and verbal communication. As such, the analysis of visual communication provides individuals with a more accurate understanding of what is truly happening in modern culture. Although visual communication has been able to effectively provide grounds for analysis, the evolution of visual communication in fresh society warranted a more intimate understanding of the specific messages that were being transmitted through visual imagery. As noted by Rice, the need for better understanding of visual communication is what has served as the impetus for the development of visual culture.

Rusted (1997) attempts to better synthesize this information by examining what can be learned through both visual culture and visual communication. Looking specifically at what can be garnered from both visual culture and visual communication, Rusted contends that visual culture represents a shift in visual communication to better understand the social construction of that in visual media. “This emphasis on power has a particular relevance for visual culture research because it signals a shift away from reading images as reflections of the relations of power to understanding their constitutive role in social formations” (p. 2). What this effectively suggests is that visual culture is more an attempt to understand the constructed meanings that are derived from visual materials rather than the stammer meaning that can be derived from simply examining a visual image as a method of communication.

Using Images to Understand Visual Communication and Visual Culture

In order to better understand the contexts of both visual communication and visual culture, it is genuine to consider analysis of specific images to better understand what information is being displayed in both processes. To this slay, this portion of the investigation examines specific images and their context in both visual communication and visual culture. By examining various images through this process it will be possible to demonstrate where visual communication ends and where visual culture begins. Further, through careful consideration of the various images presented, it will be possible to provide a clear understanding of how meaning is constructed in the context of visual images. In particular, this research utilizes images from advertising as a means to better understand these differences.

Beginning with the advertisements presented in Figures 1, 2 and 3, it becomes clear that these images are somewhat unusual. In each, various parts of a woman’s body or aged as a means to communicate the message of the advertiser. In Figure 1, a woman to head is placed inside a handbag. The message being communicated in this case is that the product should be purchased because “you know you are better.” In Figure 2, the torso of a female is depicted being caressed by a male. The message communicated in this advertisement is that the perfume serves as the basis for the development of obsession. In the final image, a hair removal product is being advertised. The goal of this advertisement is to effectively prove how well this product works. Although these literal meanings of advertisements provide a clear understanding of the process of visual communication, what they do not provide is a clear notion of visual culture.

In the context of belief advertising as visual culture, Cortese (1998) makes a number of observations about the images in the figures provided. Specifically, Cortese examines the scheme in which hegemonized meetings of gender and gender stereotypes are presented in the context of these advertisements. In the case of the first three figures Cortese argues that the images show various parts of a woman’s body, indicating body chopping or dismemberment. “Women’s bodies are often dismembered or hacked apart in ads. When their bodies are separated into parts, women end to be seen as whole persons. This perpetuates the notion that a woman’s body is not linked her mind, soul, and emotions” (p. 31). When framed in this manner it becomes evident that the specific messages that are being translated through the advertisements presented in these figures is not one that is solely predicated on conveying the message of the advertiser. Rather what is being conveyed through these images is a larger representation of how women are viewed in social discourse.

To further illustrate this point, Cortese goes on to designate that “Advertising that depicts women’s bodies without faces, heads and feet implies that all that is really important about women lies between her neck and her knees. A lack of a head symbolizes a woman without. A brain a faceless woman has no individuality. A woman without feet is immobile and therefore submissive” (31). Arguably what this effectively shows about visual culture of advertising is that it seeks to support various cultural subtexts that may not be immediately apparent to the viewer. By utilizing this type of imagery, advertisers continue to wait on the gender stereotypes that remain a pervasive part of postmodern culture. Thus, although individuals examining these advertisements may not immediately be aware of underlying message that is being communicated, the imagery serves as the basis to reinforce stereotypes of women that have long been a piece of social discourse.

Interestingly, Cortese goes onto state that there are other specific contexts of gender culture which are relayed in the context of modern advertising. In particular, Cortese notes that in many ads featuring women licensed withdrawal is often an underlying theme. According to Cortese, “Advertising sometimes portrays people, customarily women, as psychologically removed from the situation, is oriented or defenseless” (p. 33). Cortese argues that the purpose of this licensed withdrawal is to indicate that the woman is innately submissive. The woman’s inability to psychologically retract her physical surroundings makes for vulnerable to men and their sexual desires. For men, the licensed withdrawal of the woman indicates a willingness to cooperate in any manner in which the man desires.

Cortese also notes the use of body clowning as a means to communicate the subordination of women. “When men are shown a loan in ads, they are often portrayed as secure, powerful and serious… [...] Women, in contrast are pictured as mischievous clowns, supporting the attitude that women are childish and cannot be taken seriously. They are often depicted with silly arm, leg and head gestures” (p. 33-4). As noted by Cortese, the practice of a body clowning further serves as the basis for advertisers to effectively build on gender stereotypes hegemonized in current culture. Advertisers attempting to appeal to the stereotypes of women as objects rather than as self determining individuals, have chosen to produce images that support how men would prefer to envision women. Although this process may not appear to be detestable at the outset, in actuality these specific images continue to perpetuate stereotypes of women and their behavior that remain a barrier to the advancement of women in postmodern culture.

Finally, Cortese in his investigation of women in advertising also comments on the ritualization of subordination. According to Cortese “People in charge of their lives typically stand operate, alert and ready to meet the world. In contrast, the bending of the body can face on preparedness, submissiveness and appeasement. [...] Women are often shown in ads reclining or lying on the bed or a floor” (p. 34-5). Here again, the intent of the advertiser is to convey an image of the woman asked submissive to the man. For many men, the ritualization of subordination is paramount for codifying the context of masculinity in the development of culture. Men prefer to see themselves as the dominant gender, consistently exerting their power over women. By depicting women in positions of subordination, advertisers are able to appeal to this aspect of male intuition and create images that are not only pertinent to the subject being advertised but also capable of tapping into the innate desires of men.

When defined in this context, the true differences between visual communication and visual culture can clearly be seen. Visual communication in this context is a means for the advertiser to convey a specific message about the product or service that is being advertised. However when the basic components of the ad are deconstructed and examined by the anthropologist, it becomes definite that the various elements that are worn to construct the ad have deeper cultural meaning that transcends the specific message that is being communicated. When the specific implements of the ad or deconstructed and meaning is derived from the process of deconstruction the development of visual culture becomes more evident. Visual culture is the manifestation of the components of a specific visual communication that effectively translate specific cultural information that may otherwise be difficult for the layman to effectively differentiate.

Not surprisingly, Cortese argues that the specific underlying implements of visual culture that can be seen in the context of using women in advertising is not honest limited to cultural variables that shape gender stereotypes. Cortese maintains that there are a plethora of cultural messages that can be derived from the imagery that is presented in advertising. To better illustrate this point, Cortese examines the context of the gay and lesbian advertising. As noted by this author, “Many gays and lesbians are not openly homosexual for a wide variety of reasons (e.g., discrimination in employment and housing, prejudice, family, religion)” (p. 37). For this reason, Cortese argues that the specific context of advertising that is old-fashioned to reach this population is often more subtle in nature. “Advertising attempts to use a tool market approach that will attract gays and lesbians in a subtle intention that straight consumers will not notice. In short, advertisers try to reach gays and straights with the same ad, but in different ways” (p. 37).

The revelations made by Cortese in the context of gay and lesbian advertising clearly demonstrates the complexity of visual culture overall. According to Cortese, “Because of the severe stigma that has historically been attached to homosexuality, gays have had to create code of behavior, using coded language and nonverbal displays of gesture, look contact, expression or postures” (p. 37). By using the specific implements in advertising, advertisers are able to successfully garner the attention of gays and lesbians without explicitly drawing attention to the advertisement as a homosexual explain. Thus, when examining advertising in the context of visual culture it becomes evident that the complexity of visual culture is compounded by the presence of competing audiences for the same advertisement.

Research on the use of visual culture in the context of advertising demonstrates that Cortese is not the only author to identify specific trends of gender stereotyping and sexual identity in the context of this medium. Schroeder and Zwick (2004) in their examination of advertising design the following observations:

Almost all products are gendered in the practice of normative sexual dualism reinforced and maintained within the interlocking cultural institutions of marketing communications and market segmentation. As an engine of consumption, advertising plays a strong role in promulgating dualistic gender rules and prescribing sexual identities. Most ad campaigns invoke gender identity, drawing their imagery primarily from the stereotypes iconography of masculinity and femininity. In this method, masculinity and femininity interact smoothly with the logic of the market advertising representations and consumption practices provide a meaningful system of difference, which has established strong limits to the possibilities of male and female consumer ontologies (p. 21-2).

In this context, the dualism presented by visual culture and visual communication can clearly be seen. Although the goal of advertising is to effectively provide a message to the consumer, the underlying constructs of visual culture serve as the basis to perpetuate stereotypes embedded in every day culture. This process in turn perpetuates the manner in which both men and women interact with their environment and those around them.

When examined from this perspective, it becomes evident that visual culture is indeed a double edged sword. While visual culture provides a means for anthropologists to better understand the underlying constructs that drive the development of culture, visual culture also serves as the impetus to continue or perpetuate specific realities in mainstream culture. To illustrate this point considers the specific images presented earlier. Although women have made a number of important advancements towards gaining gender equality, in the context of advertising the stereotypes of women as objects continue to be perpetuated. For this reason, women are peaceful led to believe that they are subordinate to men and men are peaceful led to believe that they are the dominant gender. While this message is antithetical to some of the specific changes that have taken place in society, the sentiments remain an integral piece of culture because they are continuously displayed in the visual representations that individuals encounter on a daily basis. Thus, even though women have been able to make inroads toward gaining gender equality much of their progress is stunted because of the gender stereotypes of women that remain a pervasive allotment of mainstream culture.

Despite the fact that many scholars examining advertising have been quick to argue that advertising in and of itself is the central force mitigating the perpetuation of various stereotypes, other scholars examining the basic rudiments of advertising contend that it is not the ads themselves that promulgate the development of visual culture; rather, what prompts the development of visual culture is the creation of false images or ideals presented by the advertiser. Specifically, Barnard (1995) argues that:

The main incompatibility here is that ads are directing desire for false ideals and in a way that obscures the exact structure of society. So ads intend to make us feel we are lacking, they engender desire in us, and they command our desire towards consumer goods. However they are selling us something else besides consumer goods. In advertising, people and products are made interchangeable, and instead of being identified with what they construct, people are made to identify with what they consume. In this way the real distinctions between people, based on class are obscured or overlayed by the false categories invoked by advertising in manufactured goods (p. 34).

In this context, advertisers are going above and beyond the specific implements of culture that are inherent in individual understanding of gender stereotypes or sexuality. Clearly what this suggests about advertising is that it takes the process of visual culture one step further to create an ideological culture, a reality that cannot be achieved but nonetheless is put up by the advertiser to persuade the consumer to purchase a specific product.

Synthesizing the Research

Although advertising has been the central focus for deconstruction and investigation in this research, it should be eminent that there are a plethora of other visual mediums that can be deconstructed in the same manner. With this observation made, it is now possible to synthesize the information that has been presented in this investigation to provide a more coherent understanding about the use of visual culture as a theory in visual communication. Drawling on the specific information provided in this investigation, it will be possible to demonstrate how visual culture has evolved in the context of visual communication and how visual culture has become an extension of visual communication overall.

Considering first the basic context of visual culture, it is clear that this process of investigation warrants the development of a more integral understanding of how meaning is transmitted through visual media. Visual communication, on the other hand, was initially developed as a means to better understand how visual representations communicate various quantitative meanings to the observer. While it is evident that visual communication was initially predicated upon the transmission of a simple message from sender to receiver, it is clear that it over the course of social development, the communications that were being transmitted through visual medium became much more complex. In order to understand the complexity and the unconscious meanings associated with visual representations, anthropologists had to develop a more intrinsic method for understanding visual communications.

As the field of visual communication began to evolve, the development of visual culture became essential to the process of understanding visual communication. Visual culture serves as the basis for helping social scientists better understand the underlying meanings that are show in visual communications. In this investigation, the visual culture demonstrate in advertising was thoroughly examined. Through this examination, it was possible to explain that while advertisement does communicate a quantitative message to the observer, there are a host of specific implements utilized in the process of advertising that visually communicate and reinforce gender stereotypes that are pervasive in modern culture.

Subsequent research on the process of visual culture in the context of advertising demonstrates that the visual culture created through the process of advertising creates a cyclical pattern in which stereotypes are reinforced, social activities conform to stereotypes and as such stereotypes are consistently reiterated through the process of visual culture.

When placed in this perspective, it becomes evident that the process of visual culture is necessary to understand the total process of visual communication. Although the quantitative message that is being conveyed through the process of visual communication is an important part of the specific message being sent to the receiver, it is evident that this quantitative message is not the sole meaning they can be derived from a particular visual communication. For this reason, if the true meaning of visual communication is to be understood visual culture becomes a necessary implement for fully idea the particular messages that the visual creator is attempting to provide for his or her audience. Without a distinct and concise plan of visual culture, the overall message that is being conveyed through the visual medium is lost. For this reason, visual culture as a paradigm of visual communication is an essential tool for accurately opinion the process of visual communication. Visual culture then is an integral fraction of understanding the total message that the visual artist is attempting to convey.

Even though visual culture is clearly an important part of visual communication the process of visual culture is one that poses a number of unique challenges for view. To illustrate this point, one only needs to believe the example of contented and lesbian advertising reviewed in the context of this investigation. According to Cortese, the process of happy and lesbian advertising draws on a number of inadvertent and often undisclosed symbols and interactions that are not typically apparent to the straight viewer. As such, social scientists examining the process of visual culture that exists in the context of gay and lesbian advertising must have a concise understanding of the social construct of homosexuality in the pervading culture. Without an explicit understanding of cultural attitudes toward homosexuality, the true message of being communicated in these advertisements would be effectively missed.

The complexities of visual culture are what make visual communication a more interesting field. Any individual can examine visual media and extract the apparent meaning of a visual communication. However, to understand the constructs of visual culture, the social scientist must be able to link the specific imagery that is presented with the overriding culture that exists at the time the specific work was created. Through the contraction of visual images, the social scientist can better understand the specific cultural discourse that led to the creation of the work in the first place. In addition, the social scientist can better understand the basic implements of culture that shape trends in visual communication.

Conclusion

The primary goal of this investigation was to critically request visual culture as one of the series utilized in visual communication studies. Through a careful and critical examination of visual culture, visual communication and specific examples of visual media, this investigation demonstrates that visual culture is a tool that serves as the basis for assisting the social scientist in better understanding the specific communication that is delivered through a specific visual media. Visual culture provides a more integral view of how and why a specific visual communication was created. It also provides notable insight into the specific underlying implements of culture that impact the development of visual communications. Without a clear understanding of visual culture, the context of visual communication would not have as much meaning for the social scientist. Although understanding visual culture requires the social scientist to engage in deconstruction of the visual media, the information that is provided through this process is critical for helping the social scientists to understand the broader context of visual communication.

In the end, it is evident that the study of visual communication in and of itself is not adequate enough to fully conceptualize the messages that are being sent through the process of visual media. By examining visual culture through the process of advertising, this investigation explicitly demonstrated that visual communication does not provide a complete conception of what message is being sent in visual advertising. Only through deconstructing various advertisements is it possible to fully understand the meaning that advertisers are attempting to convey to the larger audience. In this context, visual culture serves as a positive tool for opinion. Without visual culture, the true meanings being displayed through advertising would be lost even through extensive examination through visual communication.

Clearly, the process of visual culture is one that has notable impacts and ramifications for the development of society. While the study of visual communication focuses on the message being sent from center to receiver, the process of visual culture is one that considers how visual images are constructed and how these images impact culture. In this process visual culture becomes a mitigating factor for the development of social discourse. Visual culture begets visual displays which in turn shape visual culture. As such, this process is one that continues to perpetuate itself in the context of modern society. Images that are produced serve as the impetus to reinforce or change various issues in the context of culture. This cycle perpetuates itself through the constant reproduction and reiteration of culture through various visual media. When placed in this perspective it becomes evident that the process of visual culture is one that is important to better understanding the development of visual communication. Without visual culture, visual communication would lose a worthy amount of its meaning.

References

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