CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR – 04

[Continued from the earlier Chapter - 03 of Consumer Behaviour]

SECONDARY DATA :
Secondary data are those which are already smooth for another purpose, during some other period of time, by some other agencies, and are readily available for the unusual purpose.

Advantages :
The following are the advantages of secondary data :
1.It is economical, and for a small label it is available,
2.It is less time challenging,
3.While examining the secondary data, if the researchers find any short comings or gaps then they try to make that up at the time of primary data collection,
4.While examining the secondary data, the researchers find new horizons to the problem and their understanding of the problem increases,
5.This can form a basis of comparison with the final primary data.

Disadvantages :
The following are the advantages of secondary data :
1.The unit of measurement of the secondary data may not be the same for the current purpose. In such a case the data cannot be used purposefully,
2.The exact class boundaries, grouping etc. may not be the same. So the purpose may not be solved,
3.It’s difficult to know the level of accuracy of the secondary data or how much care had been taken to rep that. This may not solve the new purpose,
4.The secondary data available may be outdated, or the external controlling factors at the time of collection might have been different.

Sources :
Secondary data are obtained internally or externally :
1.Internal – When the data are available within the company itself : Internal Audit, Annual Reports, In-House Publications, Sales Report, Previously conducted Research Papers, miscellaneous reports, or from the experience and knowledge of experts working in the firm itself.
2.External – When the data are available from outside sources, like :
Government Publications – These are the papers and journals published by Govt. organisations like Reserve bank of India, Ministry of economic Affairs, Central Statistical Organisation, Export-Import Bank, Planning Commission, Registrar General of India, Director General of Commercial Intelligence, Office of the Economic Advisor, Ministry of Planning, National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO), etc.
Non-Government Publications – These are the papers and journals published by Non-Govt. organisations like FICCI, ASSOCHAM, Fly, CII, Coir Board, Rubber Board, Stock Exchanges, Private Industries, etc.
Syndicated Services – are provided by certain organisations which collect, tabulate and analyse marketing Information on a regular basis, and sold to subscribers. Sometimes this data is considered as an intermediate data source between secondary and primary because it has the characteristics of both – as this is collected from original sources and is current.
Consumer Research Services ( Commercial Data ) – Several research agencies offer customised research services to their clients. Unlike the syndicated services in customised services the research agency undertakes ad hoc studies on behalf of its clients. Some of the studies conducted by these agencies were of pioneering nature challenging the development of appropriate understanding as well as sampling and measurement techniques. Some major MR Agencies in India are
1.Indian Market Research Bureau (IMRB)
2.Market Research Society of India (MRSI)
3.Operation Research Group and Market Research Group (ORG-MARG)
4.AC Nielson India
5.Taylor Nelson Sofres and Marketing Operation Design and Enquiry Service (TN Sofres MODE)
6.MBL – RCG (now NFO) National Family Thought.
Publication of National International Organisations ( Periodicals and Books ) – There are several international organisations that publish statistics in their respective areas. Some of these organisations publish data on India along with that of other countries. The main advantages of such data are that international comparisons can be drawn.

PRIMARY DATA –
The primary data is the data which the MR people gather or gain first hand for the purpose of a current problem. This along with the amount of secondary data should be useful for the MR purpose. The extent of primary data required is decided by the adequacy and quality of secondary data. Primary data can be collected in several methods, which are basically of two broader types – Quantitative and Qualitative methods. The choice of method depends on the kind of data required to solve the MR problem.

Quantitative Data Collection Methods :
These methods are objective, detailed in nature, and are quantifiable, can be measured. There are three types of collection methods :

1.Observation – is the collection plot thro’ the actual observation of behaviour of consumers. MR people observe the real life action / reaction, behaviour or gesture of the consumers. It can be of the following types :
Non-participative – where the research subjects are observed from a distance without interfering or even letting them know,
Partial Participative – where the researchers indulge in limited role playing,
Participative – where the researchers earn fully involved,
Mechanical Observation – where the mechanical, electronic or automatic devices are used for capturing observational information. It’s very useful for more detailed analysis later.
Though this method gives an in-depth understanding of consumer behaviour, it may be influenced by the observer, and also the subject’s information may be misrepresented and even misused.

2.Experimentation – is the most scientifically agreeable method of data collection. This is conducted in a laboratory or a market location, to capture the “cause-effect” relationship by changing obvious variables and noting the result. The laboratory here means a controlled atmosphere with the sample group of people being subjected to the stare. This method is mostly used for the 4Ps of marketing mix, and others :
Pilot test before market launching,
Market experimentation.
3.Surveys – are best suited for descriptive data, and are widely used. Surveys are utter interaction between the researcher and the individuals in a given sample. There are a variety of channels :

Mail Survey – is done thro’ mail service or now the email, where a pre-defined questionnaire is sent to the respondent and requested to respond and send back.
Personal Interview – is the face-to-face and direct conversation between the researcher and the sample member. This is pre-fixed with permission and can take place at the researcher’s place, respondent’s place or any specially prepared venue.
Telephonic Interview – is done thro’ the telephone network. Now current techniques are employed like Wide Area Telephone Service (WATS) Network, Computer Assisted Telephone Interview (CATI) where the result is directly and immediately entered into the computer database system.
On-line / Internet Surveys – are conducted thro’ internet. Here respondents are directed to the marketer’s or researcher’s website by some ad in print media or TV or any other homepage to give their response. Respondents are selective and hence the result is not accurate. Often the respondents are asked to give their personal profile consisting of demographic questions so that their preferences can be classified with respect to the profile.

Qualitative Data Collection Methods :
These methods are a subjective approach, general in nature, and are not quantifiable, can’t be measured easily or accurately but are quality concerned. These are useful where a trend or a behavioural pattern or intrinsic characteristics are required to be evaluated. These methods are based on the psychoanalytical and clinical aspects of psychology and include free-response and open-ended types of questions to stimulate the respondents to reveal their innermost feelings, thoughts and beliefs. The main types are :

1.Depth Interview – This is a detailed, long and exhaustive interview (30-60 minutes) between a respondent and a highly trained and skilled research interviewer. After the person is set at ease, he is encouraged to talk and express freely about his feelings, preferences, activities, interests, attitudes, opinion, moods, motives, beliefs, values in details, while the interviewer talks less and listens. Video recordings are also made for analysing behaviour, moods, Style, gesture, body language of the respondent further. The following are the main characteristics of the depth interviews :
These bring out very rich depth of information,
They are very flexible,
Probing is very useful at uncovering hidden issues,
They are unstructured (or loosely structured)- this differentiates them from behold interviews in which the same questions are asked to all respondents,
These can be time consuming and responses can be difficult to interpret, and requires skilled interviewers,
These are expensive – interviewer bias can easily be introduced,
There is no social pressure on respondents to conform and no group dynamics,
They usually start with general questions, then rapport establishing questions, and then move to more purposive questions,
Questions are cascaded or laddered, which is a technique used by depth interviewers in which the interviewer originate with questions about external objects and external social phenomena, then proceed to internal attitudes and feelings,
They use hidden explain questioning, which is a technique in which they concentrate on deeply felt personal concerns
Symbolic analysis is a technique used sometimes by depth interviewers in which deeper symbolic meanings are probed by asking questions about their opposites.

2.Focus-Group Interviewing – is similar to the depth interview with 8-10 respondents at a time as a focus group. The discussion is “focused” on the subjects of research. This kind of interview takes about 2 hours which is more time-efficient and is conducted in specially designed discussion / conference rooms fitted with one-way mirrors. The interviewer (generally known as the moderator) conducts the discussion skilfully and several others watch them without interruption or being seen. The total proceedings are video recorded for further analysis. The disadvantages are – the group must be coherent, and some individuals in a group tend to follow the group. The following are the main characteristics of the Focus Groups :
The interactive group discussion is lead by a moderator,
Unstructured (or loosely structured) discussion takes set where the moderator encourages the free flow of ideas,
Usually 8 to 12 members in the group who fit the profile of the target group or the consumers,
These usually last for 1 to 2 hours, and are more time efficient, inexpensive and speedy,
These are usually recorded on video,
The interview room usually has a large window with one-way glass – participants cannot see out, but the researchers can see the participants inside,
They can use computer and internet technology for on-line focus groups,
Here, the group dynamics is useful in developing new streams of thought and covering an issue thoroughly see focus group for a more detailed description,
The respondents feel a group pressure to conform to similar behaviour.

3.Use of Projective Method in Interviewing (Projective Techniques) – Often the consumers give their views which are rationalised unconsciously or concealed consciously and these give rise to incorrect data / information. Researchers are luminous enough to conduct a variety of disguised tests to bring out the truth, such as incomplete sentences, untitled pictures, word-association tests, other-person characterisation etc. This method forms an integral part of depth and focus group interviews. The following are the main characteristics of the Projective Techniques :
These are unstructured prompts or stimulus that encourage the respondents to project their underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes, or feelings onto an ambiguous situation,
They are all indirect techniques that attempt to disguise the purpose of the research.

Examples of projective techniques include :
Word Association – say the first word that comes to mind after hearing a word – only some of the words in the list are test words that the researcher is interested in, the rest are fillers – this method is useful in testing brand names – variants include chain word association and controlled word association,
Sentence Completion – respondents are given incomplete sentences and asked to complete them,
Story Completion – respondents are given portion of a memoir and are asked to complete it,
Cartoon Tests – pictures of cartoon characters are shown in a specific situation and with dialogue balloons – one of the dialogue balloons is empty and the respondent is asked to maintain it in,
Thematic Apperception tests – respondents are shown a picture (or series of pictures) and asked to make up a story about the relate(s),
Role Playing – respondents are asked to play the role of someone else – researchers assume that subjects will project their absorb feelings or behaviours into the role,
Third-Person Technique – a verbal or visual representation of an individual and his/her situation is presented to the respondent – the respondent is asked to relate the attitudes or feelings of that person – researchers assume that talking in the third person will minimise the social pressure to give standard or politically correct responses.

4.Metaphor Analysis – In the 1990s a study on consumer research revealed that non-verbal communication is more common and efficient and people think in images and not in words. The consumers’ view process is in a series of images, and it’s likely that many consumers can’t express in words adequately. So it’s important to enable them to represent their images in an alternate non-verbal form like pictures, photos, sounds, music, cartoons, animations, videos, movies etc. The use of one form of expression to describe or picture the feelings about another is called a “Metaphor”. The Zaltman Metaphor Elicitation Techniques (ZMET), the first patented MR tool in USA relies on visual images to assess consumers’ deep and subconscious thoughts about products, services, and marketing strategies.

Choice of Gawk Method :
As seen above there are two basic types of primary data collection methods each having several individual methods. The MR group has to decide during the MR planning stage the methods to be followed. Every method has its merits and demerits. Usually several methods are selected and the selection process is based on following factors :
1.Cost and benefit (the Cost factor),
2.Depth and extent (the Need factor),
3.Urgency of the job (the Time factor),
4.Quantity and quality of data and information (the Content factor),
5.Accuracy and versatility (the Validity factor),
6.Control of samples (the Statistical factor),
7.Supervision and management of field job (the MR factor)

QUANTITATIVE DATA MEASUREMENT / SCALING TECHNIQUES :
Broadly these techniques are divided into two sections : (1) Measurement of Attributes, and (2) Measurement of Attitude. They are presented below :

Measurement of Attribute :
The belief of measurement involves assigning a quantifiable number or symbol to various attributes under study. Quantitative research is a structured or systematic data collection diagram which uses various techniques of measurement like questionnaires and attitude scales.

1.Questionnaire – This is a set of questions that are asked to the respondents directly to bring out the desired information from them. This is a widely used tool for researchers and the questions are carefully decided. These are basically of two types :
Structured – This questionnaire consists of several pre-selected questions with the proper sequence or order of asking. Normally neither the questions nor the sequence are changed.
Non-structured – Here also the questions are pre selected but while interviewing some more can be added and there is no fixed order. The researcher shall decide the order and extra questions depending on the site.
Both the above types may be subdivided into two more types like direct (non-disguised) and indirect (disguised) :
Direct (non-disguised) – These type of questions are straight forward and the respondents are aware of the objective of the research,
Indirect (disguised) – These type of questions are not straight forward and the respondents are not aware of the objective of the research. Researchers use this type to prevent a situation where the respondents may feel stunned while answering certain types of queries, or they may intentionally answer incorrectly.

2.Designing of the Questionnaire – The designing of a questionnaire is a highly skilled and critical job which is used to bring out of respondents the requisite information. Different channels need different questionnaires. For this several famous factors can be considered :
Type of information to be collected – The exact type and amount of information required for the research study must be decided prior to the study. Insufficient information may not solve the purpose and excess information may be costly.
Type of Questions – Now the type of questions is to be selected – they are :
1.Open ended questions are “open” i.e., have unrestricted answers, and the respondent is free to decide the form, length, variety and detail.
2.Closed ended or Multiple-Choice questions are those whose answers are shrimp to the list of choices given by the researcher. The respondent has to indicate which is closest his response.
3.Dichotomous questions are those whose answers are limited to only two choices given by the researcher. The respondent has to indicate which is closest to his response.
Phrasing the Questions – this is how the words are put and how the question is drafted. For the same question, answers differ depending on the spend of different words and phrases. In order to ensure appropriate phrasing, following points should be taken care of :
1.Difficult or complecated words should be avoided,
2.Vague words, and words having double meaning should be avoided,
3.Lengthy questions should be avoided,
4.Combining of two or more questions should be avoided,
5.Questions should be real and specific.
Order of Questions – this aspect ensures the proper flow of information in a conducive atmosphere. The questions should flow from easy to hard, simple to complex, short to more descriptive, personal to research related, etc. Also care should be taken to sustain the interest of the respondent, otherwise fatigue, indifference or absence of interest may give rise to incorrect information. So the researcher should sense the situation and ask the specific and critical questions.
How Many Questions – The number of questions is decided by three basic factors – the number that is sufficient to get the requisite information, and the number that can sustain the interest of the respondent, and of course the time taken to complete the questionnaire. The best way to settle the number of questions is pre-testing the questionnaire by the research team.
Layout of the Questionnaire – the last but not the least is the layout of the Printed questionnaire. It should be trim and good-looking so that it may create a obedient impression. Sufficient space must be given for the answers. The size of letters should be such that the readability is optimum. Fine paper, colour, bold and underlined type should be worn.

Measurement of Attitude :
The View of Attitude – Attitude is defined as a mental position with regard to a person or a thing, or a feeling or emotion toward a fact or state. In the context of consumer behaviour, we can consume Thurstone’s definition of 1928 : “Attitude” as “the sum total of man’s inclinations and feelings, prejudice or bias, preconceived notions, ideas, fears, threats and convictions about any specific topic”. Attitude is highly subjective and personal.

1.General Procedure of Attitude Measurement or Scaling : Though attitude is a highly subjective and qualitative attribute, researchers have found out adequate methods of measuring it. There are several of them :

Graphic Rating Scales – are the most widely used attitude measurement scale, where several attributes are chosen and for each of them several options are given. The respondent is asked to choose a single option for each of the attributes of a product as per his preference. Here there is a limitation – the numbers shouldn’t be too low nor too high – best range is 5 to 7 for both options and attributes.
1.The attributes may be Price, Product Look, Brand Name, Quality, Additional features, After sales service etc. of a product,
2.The rating options may be Extremely Enchanting, Very Intelligent, Somewhat Appealing, Marginally Keen, Not at all Appealing etc.

Semantic Differential Scales – are bipolar ones defining two extremely opposite states of a particular attribute, with a few convenient divisions or intervals between them. The opposite states may be cheap/costly, poor/excellent, good/bad, generous looking/shabby, convenient/inconvenient, like/dislike, love/hate etc. and the interval may be divided into 5/7 equal periods or degree of two extremes. This intention is quite easy fast and correct. It is also useful for comparison of several attributes and several competitive products/services.
Ranking or Rank Order Scales – are where a ranking or order of preference is made out of the several attributes of a product. Say, the attributes Ticket, Performance, Looks, Style, Durability, Service etc. can be ranked or set to order according to the preference of the respondent. Care should taken not to set too many of them (maximum ten).

LIKERT Scale – is devised by Rensis Likert which gives a five point rating system – Strongly Agree, Somewhat Agree, Undecided (Neither Agree nor Disagree), Somewhat Disagree, Strongly Disagree – and the respondents are asked to rate a set of pre-set statements according to their preference. In case of negatively worded statements, they can be rated in reverse order. The number of statements that are rated can be more. The advantages are the simplicity and less time consuming. The disadvantage is it is not very reliable, for same score can be obtained by respondents of different attitude and vice-versa. There are two major variations of this scale as follows :
1.Satisfaction Scale – here the rating is in terms of “satisfaction” instead of “agree” or “approve” like – Very Satisfied, Somewhat Elated, Undecided (Neither Satisfied nor Dissatisfied), Somewhat Dissatisfied, Very Dissatisfied.
2.Importance Scale – here the rating is in terms of “importance” instead of “agree” or “approve” like – Extremely Important, Somewhat Important, Undecided (Neither Important nor Unimportant), Somewhat Unimportant, Extremely Unimportant.

Behaviour Intention Scale – is another attitude measurement scale which is similar to the LIKERT scale which includes rating regarding the present state of preference and attitude towards a product, and the respondents are asked about their likelihood of acting in a certain way in future like continuing using the same product or recommending to another consumer for exercise. The ratings are :
1.Definitely will continue using it / recommend to someone else,
2.Probably will continue using it / recommend to someone else,
3.May or may not continue using it / recommend to someone else,
4.Probably will not continue using it / recommend to someone else,
5.Definitely will not continue using it / recommend to someone else.

2.Limitation of Attitude Measurement – There are however certain limitations to attitude measurement. Hence attitude scales should be used with great care and caution. They are given in the following :
Their inability to predict the behaviour of consumers in future for there is no way to know whether the attitude shall remain the same in future,
They tend to overlook the immediate environment of the consumers, who are greatly influenced and motivated by external factors and environment.
The relationship between attitude and buying behaviour still continues to be blurred and indistinct. Liking a product and buying it are more often different than not.

Key Words :
Qualitative Data Collection, Quantitative Data Collection, Observation, Participative, Non-Participative, Depth Interview, Focus Group interview, Projective Method or Projective Techniques, Metaphor Analysis, Attitude, Observation, Perceive, Participative, Experimentation, Questionnaire, Zaltman Metaphor Elicitation Techniques (ZMET), Open Ended, Closed ended and Dichotomous Questions.

References :
1.Consumer Behaviour and Marketing Action, Thomson India Edition, 6th Edition, 2006.
2.Consumer Behaviour and Marketing Research, Suja R Nair, Himalay Publishing House, 1st. Edition, 2004.
3.Consumer Behaviour and Marketing Strategy, J Paul Peter, Jerry C Olson, 2nd. Edition, IRWIN, 1990.
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6.Consumer Behaviour, David L Loudon and Albert J Della Bitta, TMGH, 4th. Edition, 2006.
7.Consumer Behaviour, ICFAI University, May – 2005.
8.Consumer Behaviour, James F Engel, Roger D Blackwell, Paul W Miniard, 8th. Edition, The Dryden Press, 1995.
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11.Marketing Management – Planning, Implementation and Control, Global Perspective, Indian Context, V S Ramaswamy and S Namakumari, MacMillan India Ltd., 3rd. Edition, 2003.
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Please refer to the Author’s earlier Articles :
1. Holistic Marketing -
http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/1061316/holistic_marketing.html? cat=35
2. Consumer Behaviour -(Preface and Intro)
http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/1064450/consumer_behaviour.html? cat=35
3. Consumer Behaviour (Chapter-01) -
http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/1293948/consumer_behaviour.html
4. Consumer Behaviour (Chapter-02) -
http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/1327795/consumer_behaviour02.html
5. Consumer Behaviour (Chapter-03) -
http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/1335719/consumer_behaviour03.html